....By 1983, the diffusion of innovations literature was reported as including over
3,000 publications (beginning with Ryan and Gross’s analysis (1943) of farmers who
adopted use of hybrid corn) and over 2,000 empirical research reports (Rogers 1983). Due
presumably to the vitality and effectiveness of its basic precepts, the literature is
continuing to expand both inside and outside its originating academic disciplines.
"Diffusion" refers to the process of communicating an innovation to and among
the population of potential users who might choose to adopt or reject it (Zaltman et al.
1973). An understanding of the diffusion process can aid in allowing those who could
benefit from an innovation, such as a new technology, to begin accruing those benefits
earlier. By identifying critical social factors and processes in the adoption,
implementation, and utilization of a technology, the literature indicates that decision
making responses of individuals, groups, and organizations may be predicted and therefore
may also be accommodated or redirected through prescriptive strategies. By identifying
critical human and technical factors within classes of potential users, diffusion studies
also have the potential for directing the design efforts of system developers to those
system characteristics and improvements most valued by end users.
Much of the diffusion literature directly references or can be traced back to general
principles articulated, if not originated and developed, by Everett M. Rogers (Rogers
1962, Rogers & Shoemaker 1971). Important principles and postulates paraphrased from
Rogers (1983) include the following:
Four main elements identifiable in every widespread diffusion occurrence are
innovation, communication, adoption over time, and social system.
Innovation is an idea, practice, or object perceived as new by an individual, group,
organization, or other unit of adoption. A technological innovation will diffuse faster if
it is perceived as having (1) relative advantage over the methods it supersedes in terms
of economics, convenience, social prestige, or satisfaction; (2) a high degree of
compatibility with existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters; (3)
a low degree of complexity; (4) a high degree of "trialability" before
commitment is required, and (5) a high degree of visibility to other potential adopters.
Diffusion requires communication among innovators, diffusers and potential adopters in
order to reach a common "base understanding" of the innovation itself (i.e what
it is, how it works and why it works) and a common understanding of the advantages,
disadvantages and consequences of the innovation in the specific situation. Occurring over
time but not necessarily in the following order, conceptual steps in the
innovation-decision process include: (1) knowledge - being exposed to the existence of an
innovation and gaining some understanding of how it functions; (2) persuasion - forming a
favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the innovation; (3) decision - engaging in
activities that lead to a choice to adopt or reject the innovation; (4) implementation -
putting an innovation into use and perhaps re-inventing to adapt to specific needs and (5)
reinforcement - seeking reinforcement of an innovation decision already made or perhaps
reversing a former acceptance or rejection decision.
The rate of adoption of an innovation for a class of potential users
typically plots as an "s-shape" reflecting a slow beginning as only a few
innovators adopt, followed by a rapid spread throughout the class and finally by a
leveling off as full diffusion is reached.1
Regardless of whether a social system consists of a small group, a large
organization or an entire discipline, the social and communication structure of that
system facilitates or impedes the diffusion of innovations in the system. The cumulatively
increasing degree of influence upon an individual to adopt or reject an innovation is
greater in a social system with higher degrees of interpersonal and informal communication
networking. Interpersonal communication channels are especially effective if they link two
or more individuals who share similar beliefs, social status, education and the like.
Important to the acceptance or rejection of an innovation by a social system and to the
rate of adoption by the system are "opinion leaders". Opinion leaders are part
of the group of potential adopters who influence and are considered by other members of
that group to have their interests at heart. Compared with their followers,
characteristics of opinion leaders tend to include (1) more exposed to external
communications; (2) more cosmopolite; (3) somewhat higher social status; (4) more
innovative and, perhaps most significantly, (5) at the center of the interpersonal
communication network of the peer group.
These paraphrased principles illustrate that Rogers’ framework sets forth four
primary elements for successful diffusion: Innovation, communication, adoption over time,
and social system.
1/ Emphasis added.